Combining H-Adaptivity with the Element Splitting Method for Crack Simulation in Large Structures

H-adaptivity is an effective tool to introduce local mesh refinement in the FEM-based numerical simulation of crack propagation. The implementation of h-adaptivity could benefit the numerical simulation of fatigue or accidental load scenarios involving large structures, such as ship hulls. Meanwhile, in engineering applications, the element deletion method is frequently used to represent cracks. However, the element deletion method has some drawbacks, such as strong mesh dependency and loss of mass or energy. In order to mitigate this problem, the element splitting method could be applied. In this study, a numerical method called ‘h-adaptive element splitting’ (h-AES) is introduced. The h-AES method is applied in FEM programs by combining h-adaptivity with the element splitting method. Two examples using the h-AES method to simulate cracks in large structures under linear-elastic fracture mechanics scenario are presented. The numerical results are verified against analytical solutions. Based on the examples, the h-AES method is proven to be able to introduce mesh refinement in large-scale numerical models that mostly consist of structured coarse meshes, which is also beneficial to the reduction of computational resources. By employing the h-AES method, very small cracks are well represented in large structures without any deletions of elements.


Introduction
The finite element method (FEM) is an effective tool for the simulation of static or cyclic crack propagation. In FEM-based simulations of crack propagation in large structures using shell elements, such as ship hulls, coarse meshes are often employed in consideration of computational cost [1,2]. However, the dimensions of cracks are relatively small in large structures. If a higher accuracy or more local details are needed in the numerical model, it is desirable to introduce local mesh refinement, which requires less computational cost than applying a fine mesh to the entire model [3,4]. In order to introduce local mesh refinement, the h-adaptivity could be applied. The h-adaptivity has been proven to be an effective tool to enhance local accuracy while keeping computational costs low, as can be seen in several research works on the simulation of cracks [5][6][7][8].
For engineering questions using shell elements, the element deletion method is often used to represent cracks. The element deletion method is easy to implement, and its accuracy can be enhanced in many ways-e.g., by using higher mesh density [9] or by adopting suitable material models [1,[10][11][12][13]. As a result, the element deletion method is frequently applied in accidental load scenarios involving large structures, e.g., during ship collision and grounding [14][15][16]. However, the deletion of elements will bring some drawbacks. One of the drawbacks is the loss of mass or energy due to element deletion [17,18]. The other is the strong mesh dependency along the crack path, causing differences between the numerical and experimental results [19][20][21].

Mesh Refinement Using H-Adaptivity
In the h-AES method, when local mesh refinement is introduced, the local mesh is divided into two domains: the domain of refined mesh Ω and the domain of the original coarse mesh Ω ; see Figure 2. The mesh refinement is introduced by dividing the 'parent elements' into 'sibling elements'-a process that is also known 'fission' [5]; see Figure 3.
If a smaller mesh size is needed, the parent elements can be divided into more sibling elements; see Figure 2b. Additionally, further refinement could be introduced on the already refined meshes; see Figure 3c,d and Figure 4. The domains of the further refined mesh belong to different refinement levels. If more than one level of refinement is introduced, the first refined domain Ω is defined as Ω instead, and the further refinement levels are defined as Ω and so on; see Figure 4.

Mesh Refinement Using H-Adaptivity
In the h-AES method, when local mesh refinement is introduced, the local mesh is divided into two domains: the domain of refined mesh Ω r and the domain of the original coarse mesh Ω c ; see Figure 2. The mesh refinement is introduced by dividing the 'parent elements' into 'sibling elements'-a process that is also known 'fission' [5]; see Figure 3.     If a smaller mesh size is needed, the parent elements can be divided into more sibling elements; see Figure 2b. Additionally, further refinement could be introduced on the already refined meshes; see Figures 3c,d and 4. The domains of the further refined mesh belong to different refinement levels. If more than one level of refinement is introduced, the first refined domain Ω r is defined as Ω r1 instead, and the further refinement levels are defined as Ω r2 and so on; see Figure 4.  During the fission process, a newly generated node will become a hanging node if it is on the edge of a neighboring element from the unrefined domain or the lower-level refined domain; see Figure 3. If a hanging node is not on the crack path, an additional function is needed to keep the consistency between the domains. In the h-adaptivity, linear boundary conditions [6] are applied to the hanging nodes; see Figure 5. Considering the node relationship in Figure 5, the linear boundary condition could be expressed as: During the fission process, a newly generated node will become a hanging node if it is on the edge of a neighboring element from the unrefined domain or the lower-level refined domain; see Figure 3. If a hanging node is not on the crack path, an additional function is needed to keep the consistency between the domains. In the h-adaptivity, linear boundary conditions [6] are applied to the hanging nodes; see Figure 5. Considering the node relationship in Figure 5, the linear boundary condition could be expressed as: where u 1 , u 2 , and u 3 are the displacement of N1, N2, and N3, respectively. During the fission process, a newly generated node will become a hanging node if it is on the edge of a neighboring element from the unrefined domain or the lower-level refined domain; see Figure 3. If a hanging node is not on the crack path, an additional function is needed to keep the consistency between the domains. In the h-adaptivity, linear boundary conditions [6] are applied to the hanging nodes; see Figure 5. Considering the node relationship in Figure 5, the linear boundary condition could be expressed as: where , , and are the displacement of N1, N2, and N3, respectively.

Representation of Cracks
As is discussed before, the element splitting method is identical to the edge separation method if no element splitting happens. The edge separation algorithm used in the h-AES method is based on a method introduced by Camacho and Ortiz [37], where cracks are modelled by adding duplicate nodes along the crack paths; see Figure 6.

Representation of Cracks
As is discussed before, the element splitting method is identical to the edge separation method if no element splitting happens. The edge separation algorithm used in the h-AES method is based on a method introduced by Camacho and Ortiz [37], where cracks are modelled by adding duplicate nodes along the crack paths; see Figure 6. The element splitting process in the h-AES method only applies to quadrilateral elements. Figure 7 shows the procedure of modelling crack propagation using the element splitting method, in which the direction and length of crack propagation are known. At the beginning, the program will find the intersection point of the element edges and the propagation of the crack. After that, the nodes with the shortest distance to the intersection points are selected. The path of the numerical crack is determined by connecting the selected nodes. If any pair of neighboring nodes along the numerical crack are not connected by existing element edges (see Figure 7d), the element will be split along its diagonal line. The split element is replaced by two triangular elements; see Figure 7e. In addition, if the end position of the crack propagation does not coincide with any nodes, the program will find a node whose distance from the propagation end is less than , where is the length of the element edge. The node that meets this condition will be included in the numerical crack as well. In the h-AES method, although the numerical crack is still meshdependent, the implementation of element splitting could provide more flexible crack paths than the normal edge separation method. Moreover, in structured meshes consisting of triangular and quadrilateral elements, the accuracy of a crack path can be enhanced The element splitting process in the h-AES method only applies to quadrilateral elements. Figure 7 shows the procedure of modelling crack propagation using the element splitting method, in which the direction and length of crack propagation are known. At the beginning, the program will find the intersection point of the element edges and the propagation of the crack. After that, the nodes with the shortest distance to the intersection points are selected. The path of the numerical crack is determined by connecting the selected nodes. If any pair of neighboring nodes along the numerical crack are not connected by existing element edges (see Figure 7d), the element will be split along its diagonal line. The split element is replaced by two triangular elements; see Figure 7e. In addition, if the end position of the crack propagation does not coincide with any nodes, the program will find a node whose distance from the propagation end is less than l e , where l e is the length of the element edge. The node that meets this condition will be included in the numerical crack as well. In the h-AES method, although the numerical crack is still mesh-dependent, the implementation of element splitting could provide more flexible crack paths than the normal edge separation method. Moreover, in structured meshes consisting of triangular and quadrilateral elements, the accuracy of a crack path can be enhanced by adapting smaller element sizes from mesh refinement [46].

Numerical Implementation in LEFM Using the H-AES Method
In this section, two numerical examples using the h-AES method are exemplarily presented for verification. Their numerical results are verified against analytical solutions based on LEFM theory.
In order to adapt the h-AES method for FEM calculation, a FEM-based MATLAB program was developed, including the modules of pre-processing, calculation, and postprocessing. In this study, since the two examples are both 2D models, 4-nodes quadrilateral elements and 3-nodes triangular elements are used. The shape function based on Lagrange polynomials is applied for the 4-nodes quadrilateral element, and the shape function for constant strain triangles is used for the 3-nodes triangular elements. The Gauss-Legendre quadrature is applied for the numerical integration of the stiffness matrix, which is suitable for linear elastic models.

Mode I Loading with a Horizontal Crack
In this example, a 640 mm × 640 mm plate with a 4 mm horizontal straight crack in the center is considered. The plate is under biaxial loading; see Figure 8a. More details about the configuration of the simulation are presented in Table 1. Since the boundary length of the plate is 160 times the size of the crack, this example can be regarded as a horizontal crack in a semi-infinite plate under biaxial load; see Figure 8b.

Numerical Implementation in LEFM Using the H-AES Method
In this section, two numerical examples using the h-AES method are exemplarily presented for verification. Their numerical results are verified against analytical solutions based on LEFM theory.
In order to adapt the h-AES method for FEM calculation, a FEM-based MATLAB program was developed, including the modules of pre-processing, calculation, and postprocessing. In this study, since the two examples are both 2D models, 4-nodes quadrilateral elements and 3-nodes triangular elements are used. The shape function based on Lagrange polynomials is applied for the 4-nodes quadrilateral element, and the shape function for constant strain triangles is used for the 3-nodes triangular elements. The Gauss-Legendre quadrature is applied for the numerical integration of the stiffness matrix, which is suitable for linear elastic models.

Mode I Loading with a Horizontal Crack
In this example, a 640 mm × 640 mm plate with a 4 mm horizontal straight crack in the center is considered. The plate is under biaxial loading; see Figure 8a. More details about the configuration of the simulation are presented in Table 1. Since the boundary length of the plate is 160 times the size of the crack, this example can be regarded as a horizontal crack in a semi-infinite plate under biaxial load; see Figure 8b. The mesh refinement is concentrated around the crack tip region see Figure 9, which also includes a magnified presentation of the 5th-level refinement domain, as well as a comparison between the elements from the 7th-level refinement domain and the elements from the 6th-level refinement domain-which shows that the latter is 20 times the size of the former. In this study, since it would be difficult to present the whole mesh density without magnification, the mesh is always shown together with its magnified view. Figure  10 shows the mesh around one of the crack tips after deformation. In this example, if fine mesh is applied to the entire model with the same smallest mesh size, the numerical model will consist of more than 41 billion nodes and elements. Considering the number of nodes and elements presented in Table 1, the application of h-AES method could significantly reduce the computational cost.
In this example, the crack is represented by the edge separation method, since no element split was needed. Compared to the element deletion method, the representation of crack by applying the h-AES method does not remove any elements from the numerical model.  The mesh refinement is concentrated around the crack tip region see Figure 9, which also includes a magnified presentation of the 5th-level refinement domain, as well as a comparison between the elements from the 7th-level refinement domain and the elements from the 6th-level refinement domain-which shows that the latter is 20 times the size of the former. In this study, since it would be difficult to present the whole mesh density without magnification, the mesh is always shown together with its magnified view. Figure 10 shows the mesh around one of the crack tips after deformation. In this example, if fine mesh is applied to the entire model with the same smallest mesh size, the numerical model will consist of more than 41 billion nodes and elements. Considering the number of nodes and elements presented in Table 1, the application of h-AES method could significantly reduce the computational cost.   In order to verify the numerical results, they have to be compared to analytical solutions. In this example, Westergaard's solution and the theory of stress intensity factor (SIF) are used.
Regarding the coordinate system in Figure 8a, Westergaard's solution [53] offers a closed-form solution to represent the stress field on = 0. For in the stress field, the function is written as: where is half of the length of the crack, = + , is the distance from crack tip, and In this example, the crack is represented by the edge separation method, since no element split was needed. Compared to the element deletion method, the representation of crack by applying the h-AES method does not remove any elements from the numerical model.
In order to verify the numerical results, they have to be compared to analytical solutions. In this example, Westergaard's solution and the theory of stress intensity factor (SIF) are used. Regarding the coordinate system in Figure 8a, Westergaard's solution [53] offers a closed-form solution to represent the stress field on y = 0. For σ yy in the stress field, the function is written as: where a is half of the length of the crack, x = r + a, r is the distance from crack tip, and σ ∞ is the far-field stress, i.e., the stress on the boundary of the plate. Figure 11 shows the comparison between the results from h-AES and Westergaard's solution, with Figure 11b showing more details of the comparison near the crack tip. The shape function used in the program is based on constant strain triangles or Lagrange polynomials, which cannot obtain exact representations of the behavior in the region of singularity [54], which is the crack tip region in this example. As a result, the accuracy near the crack tip is not as good as in other regions. However, when r a ≥ 0.07, the relative error between numerical and analytical result is below 1%. In general, a good correspondence is achieved. In LEFM, the stress field near crack tips can be represented using stress intensity factors (SIF), which are adopted in this study for a comparison between the numerical and the analytical results. In this example, the stress field equation for mode I loading [55] is used: In LEFM, the stress field near crack tips can be represented using stress intensity factors (SIF), which are adopted in this study for a comparison between the numerical and the analytical results. In this example, the stress field equation for mode I loading [55] is used: where K I is the SIF for mode I loading, and r and θ are polar coordinates. For horizontal cracks in an infinite plate under biaxial loading, the value of K I is calculated by the following equation [55]: where σ ∞ is the far-field stress, i.e., the boundary stress. In order to compare numerical and analytical results using the stress field equations, the stress results of different points located on several arcs ahead of the crack tip are selected. Figure 12 shows the configuration of the arc and the points for stress comparison. In this study, three arcs are selected. Each of the arcs has 21 points. The ratio η for the arcs is 0.02, 0.04, and 0.06, respectively, where η = r/a.  Figu  , , and , the numerical result corresponds best with the analytical v = 0.02, with the relative error between numerical and analytical result mostly for and 3% for . This is due to the fact that the stress field equation i → 0, which means that, in practice, the accuracy decreases with increasing .

The comparison between numerical and analytical results is shown in
for the presented configurations, agreement between closed-form solutions an cal calculations is very good. The comparison between numerical and analytical results is shown in Figure 13. For σ xx , σ yy , and τ xy , the numerical result corresponds best with the analytical value when η = 0.02, with the relative error between numerical and analytical result mostly below 5% for σ xx and 3% for σ yy . This is due to the fact that the stress field equation is valid for r → 0 , which means that, in practice, the accuracy decreases with increasing r. However, for the presented configurations, agreement between closed-form solutions and numerical calculations is very good. From the equations concerning stress fields around crack tips [55], the following relationship could be deduced: [56].
where and are the SIF for mode I and II, respectively. For = 90° and = −90°, and can be expressed as: From the equations concerning stress fields around crack tips [55], the following relationship could be deduced: [56].
where K I and K I I are the SIF for mode I and II, respectively. For θ = 90 • and θ = −90 • , K I and K I I can be expressed as: By using Equations (7) and (8), the stress intensity factor can be calculated from the stress value, which makes it possible to compare numerical and analytical results for K I ; see Figure 14. The difference between numerical and analytical results is most pronounced near the crack tip, where singularity exists. This phenomenon also results from the shape functions applied in the program. After η > 0.02, when η increases, the difference between numerical results and analytical results increases gradually. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the stress field equation is valid for η → 0 , which is the result of r → 0 . In general, the numerical result is close to the analytical result.
By using Equations (7) and (8), the stress intensity factor can be calculated from the stress value, which makes it possible to compare numerical and analytical results for ; see Figure 14. The difference between numerical and analytical results is most pronounced near the crack tip, where singularity exists. This phenomenon also results from the shape functions applied in the program. After > 0.02, when increases, the difference between numerical results and analytical results increases gradually. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the stress field equation is valid for → 0, which is the result of → 0. In general, the numerical result is close to the analytical result.

Mixed-Mode Loading with an Inclined Crack
Considering a square plate under uniaxial loading (see Figure 15) and an inclined crack, the crack is subjected to mode I and mode II loading. In this example, a 160 mm × 160 mm plate under uniaxial loading is considered. The crack in the plate runs straight through the center. The angle from the positive direction of the x-axis to the crack is 45 degrees; see Figure 15. More details about the configuration of the simulation are given in Table 2. Since the length of the plate is about 28 times the size of the crack, this example can be regarded as an inclined crack in a semi-infinite plate under uniaxial load; see Figure  15.
The mesh refinement is concentrated around the crack tip. In order to represent the inclined crack, the elements on the crack path are split; see Figures 16c and 17a. Figure 16 shows a magnified view of the 2nd-level refinement domain, as well as a comparison between the elements from the 5th-level refinement domain and the elements from the 4thlevel refinement domain, with the latter being 20 times the size of the former. Figure 17 shows the mesh around one of the crack tips after the deformation. In this example, if fine mesh is applied to the entire model with the same smallest mesh size, the numerical model will consist of more than 2 billion nodes and elements. Similar to the last example, considering the number of nodes and elements presented in Table 2, the application of h-AES method could greatly reduce the computational cost.
In this example, the crack is represented by splitting quadrilateral elements into triangular elements and separating the triangular elements along their hypotenuse; see Figure 17. Same as that in the last example, no element was removed from the numerical model to represent the crack as well.

Mixed-Mode Loading with an Inclined Crack
Considering a square plate under uniaxial loading (see Figure 15) and an inclined crack, the crack is subjected to mode I and mode II loading. In this example, a 160 mm × 160 mm plate under uniaxial loading is considered. The crack in the plate runs straight through the center. The angle from the positive direction of the x-axis to the crack is 45 degrees; see Figure 15. More details about the configuration of the simulation are given in Table 2. Since the length of the plate is about 28 times the size of the crack, this example can be regarded as an inclined crack in a semi-infinite plate under uniaxial load; see Figure 15.   The mesh refinement is concentrated around the crack tip. In order to represent the inclined crack, the elements on the crack path are split; see Figures 16c and 17a. Figure 16 shows a magnified view of the 2nd-level refinement domain, as well as a comparison between the elements from the 5th-level refinement domain and the elements from the 4th-level refinement domain, with the latter being 20 times the size of the former. Figure 17 shows the mesh around one of the crack tips after the deformation. In this example, if fine mesh is applied to the entire model with the same smallest mesh size, the numerical model will consist of more than 2 billion nodes and elements. Similar to the last example, considering the number of nodes and elements presented in Table 2, the application of h-AES method could greatly reduce the computational cost.   The theory of stress fields using stress intensity factors is used to verify the numerical results. In this example, apart from the stress field equation for mode I loading, the stress field equation for mode II loading [55] is used as well: In this example, the and are [55]: In this example, the crack is represented by splitting quadrilateral elements into triangular elements and separating the triangular elements along their hypotenuse; see Figure 17. Same as that in the last example, no element was removed from the numerical model to represent the crack as well.
The theory of stress fields using stress intensity factors is used to verify the numerical results. In this example, apart from the stress field equation for mode I loading, the stress field equation for mode II loading [55] is used as well: In this example, the K I and K I I are [55]: Similar to the last example ( Figure 12), several points in front of the crack tip are chosen for the comparison between the numerical results and analytical results of σ xx , σ yy , and τ xy in Figure 18. Again, the highest accuracy is obtained where η = 0.02. Equations (7) and (8) are used to calculate K I and K I I from the stress field near the crack tip. Figure 19 shows a comparison between K I and K I I from the numerical and analytical results. Due to the fact that θ = 45 • , it can be concluded from Equations (13) and (14) that the analytical results of K I and K I I are the same in this example, as they share the same line in Figure 19. Like in the last example, the difference between the numerical result and the analytical result is the most pronounced near the crack tip. After the position of best accuracy, the difference between numerical result and analytical result increases gradually as η increases. The reason for this is the same as in the last example. Again, the numerical result is close to the analytical result. Similar to the last example (Figure 12), several points in front of the crack t chosen for the comparison between the numerical results and analytical results o , and in Figure 18. Again, the highest accuracy is obtained where = 0.02. Equations (7) and (8) are used to calculate and from the stress field ne crack tip. Figure 19 shows a comparison between and from the numerical an alytical results. Due to the fact that = 45°, it can be concluded from Equation 1 Equation 14 that the analytical results of and are the same in this example, a share the same line in Figure 19. Like in the last example, the difference between th merical result and the analytical result is the most pronounced near the crack tip. the position of best accuracy, the difference between numerical result and analytical increases gradually as increases. The reason for this is the same as in the last example. Again, the numerical result is close to the analytical result.

Discussion
In this study, by combining the h-adaptivity and the element splitting method, the h-AES method was introduced for the task of simulating cracks in large structures. The main contributions of this study are summarized as follows: • The application of h-adaptivity method enables the h-AES method to effectively create very fine meshes while keeping most of the global mesh structured and coarse.
Comparing with the application of fine mesh to the entire model, the introduction of h-adaptivity could significantly reduce the computational cost.

•
The numerical results of the h-AES method were verified against analytical solutions from LEFM scenarios with good correspondence. As a result, in numerical models mostly consisting of coarse meshes, more local details of FEM-based crack simulations could be revealed by the mesh refinement.

•
Considering engineering applications, compared with the frequently applied element deletion method, no element is deleted in the application of the element splitting method. As a result, the drawbacks caused by element deletion, such as the loss of mass and energy, are avoided.

•
The element splitting method integrated in the h-AES method is based on the edge separation method, which means that, in the h-AES method, the crack paths still have a strong mesh dependency. However, as the element splitting method is applied, numerical cracks can propagate in the diagonal line of quadrilateral elements, which can provide more flexible crack paths-in particular for structured meshes that initially only included quadrilateral elements. Hence, the extent of the mesh-dependency of crack paths is reduced.
The aim of the h-AES method is to provide a practicable crack representation method for simulations of cracks in large engineering structures under static or cyclic loading. In this study, the h-AES method is applied to linear elastic models with cracks. However, it is possible to apply the h-AES method to more numerical simulation scenarios with additional numerical functions, such as the introduction of non-linear material models and the algorithm of contact problems. Moreover, for ductile materials used in ship structures, the onset of local material failure under critical loading can be captured accurately with coarse meshes employing proper material models [12,13,15,57]. This provides a possibility to adaptively introduce local mesh refinement before crack initiation, which could be included in future research work.

Discussion
In this study, by combining the h-adaptivity and the element splitting method, the h-AES method was introduced for the task of simulating cracks in large structures. The main contributions of this study are summarized as follows: • The application of h-adaptivity method enables the h-AES method to effectively create very fine meshes while keeping most of the global mesh structured and coarse.
Comparing with the application of fine mesh to the entire model, the introduction of h-adaptivity could significantly reduce the computational cost.

•
The numerical results of the h-AES method were verified against analytical solutions from LEFM scenarios with good correspondence. As a result, in numerical models mostly consisting of coarse meshes, more local details of FEM-based crack simulations could be revealed by the mesh refinement.

•
Considering engineering applications, compared with the frequently applied element deletion method, no element is deleted in the application of the element splitting method. As a result, the drawbacks caused by element deletion, such as the loss of mass and energy, are avoided.

•
The element splitting method integrated in the h-AES method is based on the edge separation method, which means that, in the h-AES method, the crack paths still have a strong mesh dependency. However, as the element splitting method is applied, numerical cracks can propagate in the diagonal line of quadrilateral elements, which can provide more flexible crack paths-in particular for structured meshes that initially only included quadrilateral elements. Hence, the extent of the mesh-dependency of crack paths is reduced.
The aim of the h-AES method is to provide a practicable crack representation method for simulations of cracks in large engineering structures under static or cyclic loading. In this study, the h-AES method is applied to linear elastic models with cracks. However, it is possible to apply the h-AES method to more numerical simulation scenarios with additional numerical functions, such as the introduction of non-linear material models and the algorithm of contact problems. Moreover, for ductile materials used in ship structures, the onset of local material failure under critical loading can be captured accurately with coarse meshes employing proper material models [12,13,15,57]. This provides a possibility to adaptively introduce local mesh refinement before crack initiation, which could be included in future research work.
Concerning the examples presented in this study, the increase in computational cost for the mesh refinement is caused by the increased degrees of freedom. If the h-AES method is applied in explicit analysis, since the time step is related to the smallest mesh size, the influence on computational cost will be researched in future study as well.

Conclusions
In this study, an adaptive mesh refinement method called the 'h-adaptive element splitting' (h-AES) method was introduced for the numerical simulation of cracks using shell elements in FEM. Two examples of the h-AES method for crack simulations in large structure under LEFM scenarios were presented. The numerical results were verified against analytical solutions and showed good correspondence. The h-AES method was proven to be able to effectively reveal local details of geometry and material behaviors in numerical models mostly consisting of structured coarse mesh. By employing the h-AES method, very small cracks are well represented in large structures without any deletions of elements. Considering the advantages mentioned above, the implementation of h-adaptivity could benefit the numerical simulation of fatigue or accidental load scenarios involving large structures, such as ship hulls. Future research will integrate more numerical techniques into the h-AES method and apply the h-AES method to more complex simulations. This could be simulations of tensile tests of steel specimens or impact tests on steel panels.

Acknowledgments:
We acknowledge support for the Open Access fees by Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH) in the funding programme Open Access Publishing.

Conflicts of Interest:
The authors declare no conflict of interest.